In this book we have an English 101 class explaining what “literacy” means to them and the way this word has gained meaning as they have grown older and gone through many experiences. The personal stories that are shared within these pages reflect where reading and writing started for each student and the way that their literacy journey.
- Reading & Writing iStories 101 istories With videos 101 World Famous Stories Collection Package ( Moral stories Messege Oriented Stories For kids funny Story cartoon comics novels ) iPhone and iPad Developing cognitive abilities through language Oral Language & Reading Spelling Tester Spelling Test iPhone and iPad Competence and confidence in.
- Choose between five literacy activities each day. These activities are read to self, read to someone, word on writing, word work, and listen to reading. As the students were engaged in their own daily five literacy choices, my goal was to work with guided reading groups. Despite my best efforts and good intentions, it never seemed to work that way.
In this article:
Older students who struggle
In its well-known 2000 report, the National Reading Panel described five key 'building blocks' of literacy: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.
Over the last several years, these building blocks have achieved a kind of celebrity status in the education world. Nowadays, many teachers take it for granted that any decent reading program should touch on all five.
Actually, though, the NRP had young students in mind when it came up with those building blocks. For, struggling adolescent readers, the priorities are somewhat different.
For one thing, phonemic awareness and phonics shouldn't really be defined as 'essential components' of literacy instruction in the upper grades. Nearly all adolescents, even those who read at a very low level, have at least some ability to sound out words. If they need any help at all with the basic mechanics of reading, they tend to be better served by what's known as 'word study,' which is slightly more advanced than phonics instruction.1
Second, researchers have found that struggling adolescent readers tend to be easily frustrated by reading assignments and extremely disengaged from their schoolwork. In fact, disengagement is such a common problem, and addressing it is so critical to literacy development, that motivation has to be treated as one of the field's central concerns.
In short, and as the Center on Instruction suggests in the 2008 publication, Effective Instruction for Adolescent Struggling Readers, when it comes to struggling adolescent readers, the NRP's five 'building blocks' of literacy should be updated as follows:
| Grades K-3 | Grades 4-12 |
|---|---|
| Phonemic Awareness | Word Study |
| Phonics | Fluency |
| Fluency | Vocabulary |
| Vocabulary | Comprehension |
| Comprehension | Motivation |
Which of these elements should you emphasize in your school or classroom?
That depends on what you find out when you assess your students' reading skills. For instance, you might discover that some of your students need help in all five areas, others struggle mainly with motivation, others read fluently without comprehending what they're reading, and others would be served best by an extra emphasis on vocabulary.
Struggling readers shouldn't be lumped together in a single, catch-all remedial class. Instead, figure out exactly what kinds of support students need and, to the extent possible, treat them as individuals. When planning special reading classes, tutoring services, after-school programs, or other assistance, be flexible, and resist the temptation to assemble these elements into a rigid formula or a one-size-fits-all reading intervention.
Word study: For adolescents who read at a very low level
Relatively little research has been conducted on the teaching of very basic skills to students in the middle and high school grades. In providing advice to educators serving adolescents who read at a very low level, experts tend to be cautious, pointing to the need for more evidence.
However, members of the National Reading Panel have stated clearly that the existing research does not support giving adolescents the same kinds of phonics instruction that one would give to much younger students.
Typically, adolescents who read at a very low level struggle not with simple phonics but with the slightly more difficult work of decoding multi-syllabic and/or unusual words, recognizing common words by sight, reading and writing words that have irregular spellings, and identifying families of words that share common roots.2
Next steps
- Show students how to break multi-syllabic words into recognizable parts.
Often, when confronted by a long and unfamiliar word, students will sound out one syllable and then guess the rest. Coming across the word 'transition,' for example, they might read 'trans'… 'um, trans-lation.' Encourage them to slow down when reading such words, and model your own reading strategies, showing them how you sound out each part of the word and then blend them together.
- Give students lots of practice reading and writing commonly-used words that defy regular spelling patterns.
For example, words such as were, where, have, give, said, could, again, and been. Don't just have students memorize word lists, though — they'll have an easier time learning and remembering words that they see and use regularly. Highlight such words in reading passages and books, assign students to use them in their own writing, and ask them to keep track of the words they've mastered.
- Teach students common root words, prefixes, and suffixes.
Students often need to be shown, explicitly, that many of the words they read share common prefixes (such as pre-, pro-, and auto-), suffixes (such as -ology, -ous, and -ism), and roots (such as -ped, used in 'pedal' and 'pedestrian').
- Keep it short and sweet.
While struggling readers may benefit from word study, that doesn't mean you should turn the class into a deadly-dull word study workshop. Rather, while word study should be regular and frequent, it should be limited to relatively brief sessions (closer to ten or fifteen minutes than an hour at a time). And when it comes to learning new words, less is more — teach students 5-10 words at a time, rather than overwhelming them with 20-30.
- Keep it relevant.
As much as possible, word study should be linked to course content, so that students have reason to know and use the given words, and it should be treated as just one part of a larger effort to engage students in discussing interesting books and other materials and in writing and expressing their own ideas.
- Make it fun.
The goal of word study isn't just to memorize words and word patterns but to help students to develop 'word consciousness,' a term that experts use to describe a curious and playful attitude toward language. In the long run, kids who learn to enjoy words — having fun with rhymes, puns, word play, and the use of rare and unusual words — will learn far more than those who are forced to memorize word lists and complete dry workbook exercises.
More resources
The ReadWriteThink website (created by the International Reading Association and the National Council of Teachers) has a number of useful resources on this topic, including word lists, classroom activities, and reference materials for teachers and students.
The International Reading Association offers various resources in this area, including word study cards (for grades 3-8).
PrefixSuffix.com has many useful lists, explanations, and background information about common prefixes, suffixes, and root words.
Say-it-in-english.com has various lists and resources related to irregular words, root words, and more.
And here are a few other good sources for lists of common prefixes and suffixes, root words, and frequently used irregular words.
Endnotes
1Boardman, A. G., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Murray, C. S., & Kosanovich, M. (2008). Effective instruction for adolescent struggling readers: A practice brief. Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation, Center on Instruction.
2Boardman, A. G., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Murray, C. S., & Kosanovich, M. (2008). Effective instruction for adolescent struggling readers: A practice brief. Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation, Center on Instruction.
References
Click the 'References' link above to hide these references.
ACT (2006). Reading between the lines: What the ACT reveals about college readiness in reading. Ames, IA: Author.
Bates, L., Breslow, N., and Hupert, N. (2009). Five states’ efforts to improve adolescent literacy (Issues & Answers Report, REL 2009–No. 067). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Northeast and Islands.
Biancarosa, G., & Snow, C. (2006). Reading next: A vision for action and research in middle and high school literacy: A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Graham, S. and Perin, D. (2007). Writing next. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Haynes, M. (2005). Reading at risk: How states can respond to the crisis in adolescent literacy. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Boards of Education.
Heller, R. and Greenleaf, C.L. (2007, June). Literacy instruction in the content areas: getting to the core of middle and high school improvement. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
National Association of Secondary School Principals. (2005). Creating a culture of literacy: A guide for middle and high school principals. Reston, VA: Author.
National Association of State Boards of Education.(2009). State Actions to Improve Adolescent Literacy: Results from NASBE's State Adolescent Literacy Network. Arlington, VA: Author.
National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE). (2004). On Reading, Learning to Read, and Effective Reading Instruction: An Overview of What We Know and How We Know It. (NCTE Guidelines by the Commission on Reading). Urbana, IL: Author.
National Governors Association. (2005). Reading to achieve: A governor’s guide to adolescent literacy. Washington, DC: National Governors Association, Center for Best Practices.
Short, D. J., & Fitzsimmons, S. (2007). Double the work: Challenges and solutions to acquiring language and academic literacy for adolescent English language learners: A report to the Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Southern Regional Education Board (2009). A critical mission: Making adolescent reading an immediate priority. Atlanta. GA: Author.
Torgesen, J. K., Houston, D. D., Rissman, L. M., Decker, S. M., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J. Francis, D. J, Rivera, M. O., Lesaux, N. (2007). Academic literacy instruction for adolescents: A guidance document from the Center on Instruction. Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation, Center on Instruction.
Boardman, A. G., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Murray, C. S., & Kosanovich, M. (2008). Effective instruction for adolescent struggling readers: A practice brief. Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation, Center on Instruction.
Boardman, A. G., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Murray, C. S., & Kosanovich, M. (2008). Effective instruction for adolescent struggling readers: A practice brief. Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation, Center on Instruction.
Hart, T., & Risley, B. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
Biemiller, A. (2006). Vocabulary development and instruction: A prerequisite for school learning. In S. Neuman and D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of Early Literacy Research (Vol 2) (41-51). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Moje, E. B., et al. (2008). The complex world of adolescent literacy: Myths, motivations, and mysteries. Harvard Educational Review 78:107-154.
Wade, S. E., & Moje, E. B. (2000). The role of text in classroom learning. In Kamil, M., Mosenthal, P., Barr, R., & Pearson, P. D. (Eds.), The handbook of research on reading. (Volume III, pp. 609-627). Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Applebee, A., & Langer, J. (2006). The state of writing instruction in America’s schools: What existing data tell us. Albany, NY: Center on English Learning and Achievement.
References
ACT (2006). Reading between the lines: What the ACT reveals about college readiness in reading. Ames, IA: Author.
Bates, L., Breslow, N., and Hupert, N. (2009). Five states’ efforts to improve adolescent literacy (Issues & Answers Report, REL 2009–No. 067). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Northeast and Islands.
Biancarosa, G., & Snow, C. (2006). Reading next: A vision for action and research in middle and high school literacy: A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Graham, S. and Perin, D. (2007). Writing next. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Haynes, M. (2005). Reading at risk: How states can respond to the crisis in adolescent literacy. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Boards of Education.
Heller, R. and Greenleaf, C.L. (2007, June). Literacy instruction in the content areas: getting to the core of middle and high school improvement. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
National Association of Secondary School Principals. (2005). Creating a culture of literacy: A guide for middle and high school principals. Reston, VA: Author.
National Association of State Boards of Education.(2009). State Actions to Improve Adolescent Literacy: Results from NASBE's State Adolescent Literacy Network. Arlington, VA: Author.
National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE). (2004). On Reading, Learning to Read, and Effective Reading Instruction: An Overview of What We Know and How We Know It. (NCTE Guidelines by the Commission on Reading). Urbana, IL: Author.
National Governors Association. (2005). Reading to achieve: A governor’s guide to adolescent literacy. Washington, DC: National Governors Association, Center for Best Practices.
Short, D. J., & Fitzsimmons, S. (2007). Double the work: Challenges and solutions to acquiring language and academic literacy for adolescent English language learners: A report to the Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Southern Regional Education Board (2009). A critical mission: Making adolescent reading an immediate priority. Atlanta. GA: Author.
Torgesen, J. K., Houston, D. D., Rissman, L. M., Decker, S. M., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J. Francis, D. J, Rivera, M. O., Lesaux, N. (2007). Academic literacy instruction for adolescents: A guidance document from the Center on Instruction. Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation, Center on Instruction.
Boardman, A. G., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Murray, C. S., & Kosanovich, M. (2008). Effective instruction for adolescent struggling readers: A practice brief. Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation, Center on Instruction.
Boardman, A. G., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Murray, C. S., & Kosanovich, M. (2008). Effective instruction for adolescent struggling readers: A practice brief. Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation, Center on Instruction.
Hart, T., & Risley, B. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
Biemiller, A. (2006). Vocabulary development and instruction: A prerequisite for school learning. In S. Neuman and D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of Early Literacy Research (Vol 2) (41-51). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Moje, E. B., et al. (2008). The complex world of adolescent literacy: Myths, motivations, and mysteries. Harvard Educational Review 78:107-154.
Wade, S. E., & Moje, E. B. (2000). The role of text in classroom learning. In Kamil, M., Mosenthal, P., Barr, R., & Pearson, P. D. (Eds.), The handbook of research on reading. (Volume III, pp. 609-627). Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Applebee, A., & Langer, J. (2006). The state of writing instruction in America’s schools: What existing data tell us. Albany, NY: Center on English Learning and Achievement.
What every teacher should know
Reading 101: A Guide to Teaching Reading and Writing
Reading 101 is a collaboration with the Center for Effective Reading Instruction and The International Dyslexia Association.
Information Literacy Library
Learn the definitions of phonological awareness and phonemic awareness — and how these pre-reading listening skills relate to phonics.
Phonological awareness and phonemic awareness: what's the difference?
Phonological awareness refers to a global awareness of the sound structures of speech and the ability to manipulate those structures. Phonological awareness is an umbrella term that encompasses both basic levels of awareness of speech sounds, such as rhyming, alliteration, the number of words in a sentence, and the syllables within words, as well as more advanced levels of awareness such as onset-rime awareness and full phonemic awareness.
Phonemic awareness is the most advanced level of phonological awareness. It refers to a child’s awareness of the individual phonemes — the smallest units of sound — in spoken words, and the ability to manipulate those sounds.
Phonological awareness (PA) involves a continuum of skills that develop over time and that are crucial for reading and spelling success, because they are central to learning to decode and spell printed words. Phonological awareness is especially important at the earliest stages of reading development — in pre-school, kindergarten, and first grade for typical readers.
Reading Literacy Skills
Explicit teaching of phonological awareness in these early years can eliminate future reading problems for many students. However, struggling decoders of any age can work on phonological awareness, especially if they evidence problems in blending or segmenting phonemes.
How about phonological awareness and phonics?
Phonological awareness refers to a global awareness of sounds in spoken words, as well as the ability to manipulate those sounds.
Reading Literacy Worksheets
Phonics refers to knowledge of letter sounds and the ability to apply that knowledge in decoding unfamiliar printed words.
So, phonological awareness refers to oral language and phonics refers to print. Both of these skills are very important and tend to interact in reading development, but they are distinct skills; children can have weaknesses in one of them but not the other.
For example, a child who knows letter sounds but cannot blend the sounds to form the whole word has a phonological awareness (specifically, a phonemic awareness) problem. Conversely, a child who can orally blend sounds with ease but mixes up vowel letter sounds, reading pit for pet and set for sit, has a phonics problem.
Dr. Louisa Moats explains to a kindergarten teacher why it is critical to differentiate between the letters and sounds within a word when teaching children to read and write.
Reading 101 is a collaboration with the Center for Effective Reading Instruction and The International Dyslexia Association.